However House et al. (2004). (2001). Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. Stoll and Fink (1996) developed a model in determining the school culture. School culture . In the opening chapter to this section of the Handbook, Fink and Stoll review the contemporary field of educational change and ask why educational change is so difficult to understand and achieve in present times. This book assists people inside and outside schools to . An international perspective on leadership preparation. Hallinger , & The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. Ali, A. Much leadership theory reflects Anglophone and particularly US culture which Hoppe (2004, p. 335) suggests is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitarian, performance derived, comfortable with change, and action-and-data-oriented. , For example, North American and European development assert a cultural commitment to inclusion and equality for all. Transactional leadership, often viewed negatively in many Anglophone countries, may be a more appropriate theoretical basis in many contexts. Prasad , Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting PBL in a Chinese culture. However culture is often defined in broad general terms as, for example, the way we do things around here (Deal & Kennedy, 1982), obscuring complex and contested conceptualizations. Litvin (1997) attacks such essentialism, ascribing the taxonomy of groups to a Western Platonic purportedly scientific paradigm. (1998). Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(1), 3035. For example, the balance of time given to study of the legislation relevant to schooling or to the implications of a particular faith, whether Islam, Christianity, or any other, will embed values within the curriculum through the choice of priority reflected in the time allocated. & (2003). Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), (1986). Internationalisation, ethnic diversity and the acquisition of intercultural competencies. (Eds. Hoyle, E. A number of summative frameworks for analyzing culture have therefore been developed which seek to reduce the complexity of culture to simplified types which can be labeled for ease of comprehension. Mills, M. Secondly, investigations of the cultural fit of transmission and process models of learning would support those responsible for design in making more appropriate choices. The implication is that if leadership preparation and development is to aspire to cultural fit, a high degree of sophistication is required. , (2001). School Effectiveness and School Improvement. For example, Bryant (1998), researching the leadership culture of Native Americans in the United States, suggests a number of cultural assumptions embedded in American leadership: The result is a simultaneous requirement for a task and people orientation. , & Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. From showcase to shadow: understanding dilemmas of managing workplace diversity. Every school, for example, has a specific geographical and social location which will strongly shape its cultural context the inner city school serving a diverse multi-ethnic community will inherit a diversity of cultures that may be quite different to those of the suburban middle class school. In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. It involves consideration of fit to the culture of each individual school but also the necessity to equip leaders to engage with their own organizations culture, to sustain, develop or challenge it. Boosting pupil's progress development Working together to respond to changing context Know where they are going and having the will and skill to get there Possess norms of improving schools1.MOVING REFERS ON THE FOLLOWING: All leadership development has embedded cultural values. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. School culture refers to a total of shared values expressed through norms, rituals, expectations, behaviour and everyday practices. Consequently mid-forged manacles of Western generated categories hinder the development of leaders in Malaysia where Islam is deeply embedded in culture. London: Sage. Hwang, K. K. In Leithwood, K. London: Sage. Day Cincinnati: South Western. The organization's relationship to its environment. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. Education. Panel 4 A Typology of School Cultures. Two examples will suffice to illustrate this, though. Whittier Christian High School is a highly rated, private, Christian school located in LA HABRA, CA. The identification of the relevant culture and the group to which it is appropriate is predicated on the notion that humans can be classified, that a specific culture can be assigned to those in a particular geographic area or sharing a particular characteristic such as gender, language, ethnic background or religion. , They may also tackle the issue of how culture can be managed. Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. Bryant, M. & From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. Trond Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. (Eds. Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. Not only may there be particular cultural assumptions about the relationship between staff and principal, the principal and regional/national authorities, but underpinning ontological assumptions may be distinctive. Cohen, D. K. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. Gronn, P. The dynamic culture of In the education sector, the PLC provides a pathway to a learning organisation: one which comprises 'a group of people who take an active, re ective, collaborative, The capacity of any individual or group to engineer culture is questionable (Adler, 1997; Morgan, 1986). The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. Does it perceive itself as dominant, submissive, harmonizing or searching out a niche within its operational environment? Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. Much of it has been misdirected and some of it wasteful. A key influence on culture within and beyond schools has been globalization. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, v6 n1 p23-46 1995 Explores the relevance of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement. , & Ranade, M. The result is that most preparation and development takes egalitarian participation and transformational leadership as key (Bush & Jackson, 2002). Sapre and Ranade (2001, p. 379) deplore the fact that there is very little in modern Indian education that is truly rooted in the culture, tradition and genius of its people. Despite the difficulties of establishing the meaning of the concept of culture, it is used ubiquitously as a key variable, Janus-like, suggested both to influence and be influenced by a range of factors which impact on education. The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to manage that change in terms of speed, direction or nature to support the organizations goals. P. Hoppe, M. H. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. It is "the way we do things around here" and often defined as 'the basic assumptions, norms and values and cultural artifacts of a school that . Imperial Middle School 1450 S. Schoolwood Dr. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2344. Culture also impacts on delivery. In part this reflects a revolt against the perceived global homogenization of leadership. Stier, J. as aberrations instead of being endemic to organizations (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005, p. 116). & If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. Dorfman and House (2004) suggest three competing propositions: that cultural congruence in development and leadership is more effective; that cultural difference can be stimulating and bring about positive change; that leadership is universal activity. & (1986). Leadership and intercultural dynamics. Wallace, M. What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. Effects of cultural diversity on in-class communication and student project team dynamics: Creating synergy in the diverse classroom. Hanges, S. Everyone expects superiors to enjoy privileges, and status symbols are very important. Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development. Rejection of the cultural assumptions in preparation and development programs abound on the grounds of gender (Brunner, 2002; Coleman, 2005; Louque, 2002; Rusch, 2004), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998; Tippeconic, 2006), national culture (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Hallinger, Walker. Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. Rowney, J. & The political perspective would see educational leaders as seeking to generate in their pupils and staff a critical view of society, to challenge existing orthodoxies and to become citizens able to participate in social and cultural change. you are agreeing to our use of cookies. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 7497. Hanges Analysis of the content of programs might suggest that such commitment is largely camouflage for neglect of such values (Lopez, 2003; Rusch, 2004). In this line, a study . org/10.4135/9781446219362 Keywords: Stoll, & Mackay, 2014). ABSTRACT The relevance of the concept of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement is explored. Cultural fluency will be predicated on more than cognitive effort (Lakomski, 2001). Chan, B. , Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. As a consequence, leaders must be equipped to work with both imported as well as indigenous culture. For most leaders this provides perhaps the most challenging dimension of leadership, for it is necessary to understand what those cultures are, why they exist and what aspects of them can or cannot, or should and should not, be subject to change to achieve the schools goals. Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. (1999). Javidan In terms of cultural outputs school leaders need to understand both what the external societies expect from the school and what they wish to achieve themselves this will require an integration of their personal and professional values, their vision of the purpose of schooling, and the visions and values of the key external stakeholders. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. International Studies in Educational Administration. Those undertaking preparation for development may have differing value priorities which are culturally shaped. London: Paul Chapman. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. Shah, S. A preparation for school leadership: International perspectives. (1998). School culture can have an positive. P. J. (2001). A. & ), The Life and Work of Teachers (pp. (2001). (2001). The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. Stoll & Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change . Celebration and humour"we feel good about ourselves" a holistic concept. School culture, school effectiveness and school improvement. (2003). , School principals in transition. (2005). 8-9; Stoll and Fink 1995). & Teacher cultures have received most . J. The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace; National Association of Secondary School Principals (U.S.); National Association of Independent Schools. | How to buy A number of research areas seem indicated as urgently required. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. It is probably for this reason that . The product will be a mosaic of sub-cultures, which may reinforce the cultural objectives of the whole school or, in some cases, appear as counter cultures that challenge the organizational hegemony. (2004). (1996). International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4(4), 293296. We would also suggest that pupils, although seldom asked, would hold . It takes the view that culture can be unified and that dissent, anomaly, conflicts of interest or ambiguity are viewed. & International Studies in Educational Administration, 32(2), 417. , & Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. R. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. There is also a preference to face facts whether positive or negative. The government of Thailand sought to introduce the western concept of school-based management, but found this problematic in the context of an existing societal culture, typical amongst the staff of Thai schools, in which deference to senior management and leadership made the introduction of collaborative and distributed approaches to leadership very difficult. (1997). Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design. Changing the culture becomes merely a question of technical fit, of shaping leadership development to align it to local culture. The first is the blending of western (or, more correctly, exogenous) cultural values with existing cultures to generate a new cultural environment, a model sometimes described as the melting pot perspective. London: Sage. The first relates to the ways the day-to-day operations of the school interact with the outside world. Leading educational change in East Asian schools. Developing the argument further, Litvins point is that even within an apparently homogeneous group there will be wide variation in culture related to the multiple characteristics, history and context of each individual. While the former classroom and lecture based model is widespread, they suggest that the process model of problem solving, mentoring and internship holds more hope of reflecting indigenous cultures. Such an approach to cultural change is, of course, a key component of western approaches to educational leadership, and has been criticized for representing a fundamental misunderstanding of what culture is and can be. Leader development across cultures. and 'learning school'; and contacts with leading experts in this area of work which led to identification of additional literature. Good schools of this were 1965 the context of change a story of change - the Halton effective school project school effectiveness can inform school improvement the possibilities and challenges of school improvement school . Leadership and culture: Conceptual and methodological issues in comparing models across cultural settings. Celikten, M. House, R. J. There exists a considerable literature on culture, which provides a range of conceptualizations. Sarason (1971, 1996), writing of US schools, was one of the earliest to insist that improving schools was primarily a question of changing culture. (2007). However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. Mills But the real purpose of schools was, is, and always will be about learning. Finally, we identify key issues and areas for future research. Organisational Culture and Leadership. & Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: If leaders believe that a dominant culture is identifiable or achievable, and that it is a single, stable and unifying phenomenon, then changing it becomes a matter of choice, but relatively straightforward and without any moral ramifications. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. The recent emphasis has been on achieving standards through managing schools, teachers and the teaching process. Bottery asserts that there is a risk through this that there may be emerging a perspective that defines what looks increasingly like a global picture of management practice. In In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). K. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 6894. Processes and structures designed for a time that has passed are no longer appropriate in a rapidly changing society. In an increasingly complex, diverse and unpredictable world, it is necessary for schools and those working with them . In Leithwood Educational Management & Administration, 26(1), 720. 206207). (forthcoming). School Culture Edited by: Jon Prosser Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd Publication year: 1999 Online pub date: June 19, 2012 Discipline: Education Subject: Social/Philosophical Foundations, School Culture & Climate, Sociology of Education (general) DOI: https:// doi. We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. For the purposes of this chapter, these two snapshots highlight issues that result from consideration of culture, such as who are the primary leaders and how might the leadership theory used in their development be shaped in response to differing ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions? Internationally leader preparation and development tends to focus on the principal. Bjork, L. However, over a decade ago, Heck (1996) suggested that advances in statistical methods held some hope of achieving conceptual and metric equivalence in investigating theoretical models across nations and within organizations. Leadership and Diversity; Challenging Theory and Practice in Education, Macpherson, R. No one theory of leadership is implied. However, process models may not mesh with some cultures. (1997). In Saudi Arabia a command system is accepted by culture and tradition and schools have, in any case, little power to take decisions. Waters (1995) has identified three interwoven strands to globalization political globalization, economic globalization and cultural globalization. The first is that culture is neither unitary nor static (Collard & Wang, 2005), and while change may be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, trends and developments in internal and external influences will move the culture forward. International Journal of Leadership In Education, 4(4),297307. (Eds. Prasad, P. Iles, P. Hoppe (2004) believes US leaders have little difficulty in receiving negative feedback. 5167). In parallel, preparation and development sometimes include an element of raising awareness of cultures deemed to be other than that of the majority or the dominant group, what Stier (2003, p. 84) refers to as content-competencies, generally targeted at increasing knowledge of minority groups within the region or nation. (1971). Curricula and delivery which are founded on a set of cultural assumptions, even those which are dominant within the region or country, are likely to miss the mark for many. G, Crow Cross-cultural understandings of leadership: themes from Native American interviews. & (2006). This paper's focus is school culture as 10. Two typologies are developed. Understanding Schools as Organisations , Managing diversity in transnational project teams. , Wang, H. As in the GLOBE project, subgroups within nations might be also identified for inclusion. Our intent in this paper is to provide a retrospective of the past few years to provide some helpful insights into the change process in school systems. The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. Elmes Hanges Changing Our Schools: Linking School Effectiveness and School Improvement. Walker, A. These may be through processes of exclusion or processes of inclusion, resulting in a relatively homogeneous or diverse student body, but in either case the outcome will be a pupil profile which reflects a particular set of cultural characteristics. Hallinger (2001) also points to the ubiquitous use of theories such as Learning Organization and School Based Management, which are firmly embedded in similar cultural norms. (Eds. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. Preparing head teachers to respond to these challenges will be a significant challenge, therefore, and this is a focus later in the chapter. El Nemr, M. Discourse and Organization. Research in such contexts is still not extensive, although Billot, Goddard and Cranston (2007) report the findings of an international study which explores how leadership in successful multi-cultural schools is exercised in three different national settings (Canada, New Zealand and Australia). For example, culture is suggested to both shape and reflect values (Begley & Wong, 2001), philosophy (Ribbins & Zhang, 2004), gender (Celikten, 2005), religion (Sapre & Ranade, 2001), politics (Hwang, 2001), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998) and history (Wong, 2001).
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